---
title: "Power Analysis for Latent Variable Mediation"
date: "2025-08-31"
output:
  rmarkdown::html_vignette:
    options:
      toc:
        depth: 2
      number_sections: true
vignette: >
  %\VignetteIndexEntry{Power Analysis for Latent Variable Mediation}
  %\VignetteEngine{knitr::rmarkdown}
  %\VignetteEncoding{UTF-8}
bibliography: references.bib
csl: apa.csl
---



# Introduction

This article is a brief illustration of how
to use `power4test()`
from the package
[power4mome](https://sfcheung.github.io/power4mome/)
to do power analysis for the mediation
effect among latent factors in a
model to be fitted by structural
equation model modeling using `lavaan`.

# Prerequisite

Basic knowledge about fitting models
by `lavaan` is required. Readers are
also expected to have basic knowledge
of mediation and structural equation
modeling.

# Scope

To make this vignette self-contained,
some sections from
`vignette("power4mome")` are repeated
here.

To do power analysis for a mediation
effect in a path model with no latent
factors, please refer to
`vignette("power4mome")`.

# Package

This introduction only needs the following
package:


``` r
library(power4mome)
```

# Workflow

Two functions are sufficient for estimating
power given a model, population
values, sample size, and the test to be
used. This is the workflow:

1.  Specify the model syntax for the
    population model, in `lavaan`
    style, and set the population values of
    the model parameters.

3.  Call `power4test()` to examine the setup
    and the datasets generated. Repeat
    this and previous steps until the model is
    specified correctly.

4.  Call `power4test()` again, with the
    test to do specified.

5.  Call `rejection_rates()` to
    compute the power.

# Mediation

Let's consider a simple mediation
model with three factors. We would like
to estimate the
power of testing the mediation effect
by Monte Carlo confidence interval.

## Specify the Population Model

For a model with latent factor,
we only need to specify the model syntax
for the *factors*. No need to include
the measurement part and the indicators.

This is the model syntax:


``` r
mod <-
"
fm ~ fx
fy ~ fm + fx
"
```

The latent variables are `fx`, `fm`,
and `fy`. There is an indirect path
from `fx` to `fy`, through `fm`.

Note that, even if we are going to
test a mediation effect, we do not
need to add any labels to this model.
This will be taken care of by the
test functions, through the use of
the package
[`manymome`](https://sfcheung.github.io/manymome/)
[@cheung_manymome_2024].

## Specify The Population Values {#es_convention}

There are two approaches to do this:

- Using named vectors or lists.

- Using a multiline string similar to `lavaan`
model syntax.

The second approach is
demonstrated below.

Suppose we want to estimate the power
when:

- The path from `fx` to `fm` are "large"
  in strength.

- The path from `fm` to `fy` are "large"
  in strength.

- The path from `fx` to `fm` are "small"
  in strength.

By default, `power4mome` use this convention
for regression path and correlation:^[
Users can specify the values directly
if necessary.]

- Small: .10 (or -.10)

- Medium: .30 (or -.30)

- Large: .50 (or -.50)

All these values are for the standardized
solution (the correlations and
so-called "betas").

The following string denotes the desired
values:


``` r
mod_es <-
"
fm ~ fx: l
fy ~ fm: l
fy ~ fx: s
"
```

Each line starts with a *tag*, which
is the parameter presented in `lavaan`
syntax. The tag ends with a colon, `:`.

After the colon is *population value*, which
can be:

- A string denoting the value. By default:

    - `s`: Small. (`-s` for small and negative.)

    - `m`: Medium. (`-m` for medium and negative.)

    - `l`: Large. (`-l` for large and negative.)

    - `nil`: Zero.

All other regression coefficients and covariances,
if not specified in this string, are set to zero.

## Specify the Measurement Part {#measurement}

Power analysis is usually conducted before
data collection. We rarely know in advance
the factor loadings of all items. For the
purpose of power analysis, which is not
intended to be conducted with the knowledge
of all factor loadings, we believe that,
instead of specifying all the loadings,
it is sufficient to specify two values for
each factor:

- The number of indicators.

- The population reliability.

This is the approach used in `power4mome`.

For each factor, the population standardized
factor loadings for each indicator will
be derived automatically from the hypothesized
(or expected) population reliability and the number
of indicators, assuming that all indicators
have equal loadings.

Although the equal-loading assumption is unrealistic,
in *a priori* power analysis, it is difficult,
if not impossible, to specify the pattern
of factor loadings. This level of details is also
not necessary because the power estimated
is merely used to guide the planning of
data collection, instead of estimating the
"true" power after data is collected.

Two arguments will be used to set
the number of indicators and the reliability.

- `number_of_indicators`: This should be
  a *named* vector of the number of
  indicators for each factor. The names
  are the names of the factors as appeared
  in the model syntax, and the values
  are the number of indicators.

- `reliability`: This should be
  a *named* vector of the reliability
  for each factor. The names
  are the names of the factors as appeared
  in the model syntax, and the values
  are population reliability.

For example, suppose we will use the
following vectors:


``` r
k <- c(fm = 3,
       fx = 4,
       fy = 5)
```


``` r
mod_rel <- c(fy = .70,
             fm = .60,
             fx = .50)
```

The numbers of indicators for
`fx`, `fm`, and `fy` are 4, 3, and 5,
respectively.

The population reliability coefficients
for `fx`, `fm`, and `fy` are .50,
.60, and .70, respectively. In real
research, reliability as low as .50
can be problematic. We chose these values
merely for illustration

The orders are intentionally arbitrary,
to demonstrate the order does not matter.
The names will be used to interpret the
numbers correctly.

## Call `power4test()` to Check the Model

We are all set and can call `power4test()`
to check the model:


``` r
out <- power4test(nrep = 2,
                  model = mod,
                  pop_es = mod_es,
                  number_of_indicators = k,
                  reliability = mod_rel,
                  n = 50000,
                  iseed = 1234)
```

These are the arguments used:

- `nrep`: The number of replications.
  In this stage, a small number can
  be used. It is more important to
  have a large sample size than to have
  many replications.

- `model`: The model syntax.

- `pop_es`: The string setting the
  population values.

- `number_of_indicators`: A named vector
  of the number of indicators for each
  factor, described in the previous section.

- `reliability`: A named vector
  of the population reliability for each
  factor, described in the previous section.

- `n`: The sample size in each replications.
  In this stage, just for checking the
  model and the data generation, this
  number can be set to a large one unless
  the model is slow to fit when the
  sample size is large.

- `iseed`: If supplied, it is used to
  set the seed for the random number
  generator. It is advised to always set
  this to an arbitrary integer, to make
  the results reproducible.^[The functions
  used are `parallel::clusterSetRNGStream()`
  for parallel processing, and `set.seed()`
  for serial processing.]

The population values can be shown by
printing this object:


``` r
out
#> 
#> ====================== Model Information ======================
#> 
#> == Model on Factors/Variables ==
#> 
#> fm ~ fx
#> fy ~ fm + fx
#> 
#> == Model on Variables/Indicators ==
#> 
#> fm ~ fx
#> fy ~ fm + fx
#> 
#> fm =~ fm1 + fm2 + fm3
#> fx =~ fx1 + fx2 + fx3 + fx4
#> fy =~ fy1 + fy2 + fy3 + fy4 + fy5
#> ====== Population Values ======
#> 
#> Regressions:
#>                    Population
#>   fm ~                       
#>     fx                0.500  
#>   fy ~                       
#>     fm                0.500  
#>     fx                0.100  
#> 
#> Variances:
#>                    Population
#>    .fm                0.750  
#>    .fy                0.690  
#>     fx                1.000  
#> 
#> (Computing indirect effects for 2 paths ...)
#> 
#> == Population Conditional/Indirect Effect(s) ==
#> 
#> == Indirect Effect(s) ==
#> 
#>                  ind
#> fx -> fm -> fy 0.250
#> fx -> fy       0.100
#> 
#>  - The 'ind' column shows the indirect effect(s).
#>  
#> ==== Population Reliability ====
#> 
#>   fy  fm  fx
#>  0.7 0.6 0.5
#> 
#> == Population Standardized Loadings ==
#> 
#>     fm    fx    fy
#>  0.661 0.522 0.408
#> ======================= Data Information =======================
#> 
#> Number of Replications:  2 
#> Sample Sizes:  50000 
#> 
#> Call print with 'data_long = TRUE' for further information.
#> 
#> ==================== Extra Element(s) Found ====================
#> 
#> - fit
#> 
#> === Element(s) of the First Dataset ===
#> 
#> ============ <fit> ============
#> 
#> lavaan 0.6-19 ended normally after 44 iterations
#> 
#>   Estimator                                         ML
#>   Optimization method                           NLMINB
#>   Number of model parameters                        27
#> 
#>   Number of observations                         50000
#> 
#> Model Test User Model:
#>                                                       
#>   Test statistic                                38.042
#>   Degrees of freedom                                51
#>   P-value (Chi-square)                           0.910
```



By the default, the population model
will be fitted to each dataset, hence
the section `<fit>`. The fit is not
"perfect" because the model is not a
saturated model. However, the *p*-value
is high and not significant (because, with the population model
fitted, the chance of significant is close to .05).

Although we specify only the structure
for the latent factors, we can see the
automatically generated measurement part
syntax in the section `Model on Variables/Indicators`:


```
#> fm =~ fm1 + fm2 + fm3
#> fx =~ fx1 + fx2 + fx3 + fx4
#> fy =~ fy1 + fy2 + fy3 + fy4 + fy5
```

It confirmed that we specified the
measurement part correctly.

We then check the section `Population Values`
to see whether the values are what we
expected.

- In this example, the population values for the regression
paths are what we specified.

If they are different from what we expect,
check the string for `pop_es` to see whether
we set the population values correctly.

- The section `Variances:` shows the
  variances or *error* variances of
  the latent factors. Because `fm`
  and `fy` are endogenous factors,
  the values presented, next to `.fm`
  and `.fy`, are error variances, and that's
  why they are not 1, unlike `fx`.

The section `Population Reliability`
shows the population reliability coefficients:


```
#> ==== Population Reliability ====
#> 
#>   fy  fm  fx
#>  0.7 0.6 0.5
```

They are the values we set to `reliability`.

The section `Population Standardized Loadings`
shows the standardized factor loadings
for each factor. Only one value for each
factor because the loadings are assumed to
be the same for all items:


```
#> == Population Standardized Loadings ==
#> 
#>     fm    fx    fy
#>  0.661 0.522 0.408
```

If necessary, we can check the data
generation by adding `data_long = TRUE`
when printing the output:

```r
print(out,
      data_long = TRUE)
```



Two new sections will be printed.
This is the first one:


```
#> ==== Descriptive Statistics ====
#> 
#>     vars     n mean   sd  skew kurtosis se
#> fm1    1 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.01     0.00  0
#> fm2    2 1e+05 0.01 1.00  0.01    -0.01  0
#> fm3    3 1e+05 0.00 1.01  0.00    -0.02  0
#> fx1    4 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.00     0.00  0
#> fx2    5 1e+05 0.00 1.00 -0.01     0.00  0
#> fx3    6 1e+05 0.00 1.00 -0.01    -0.02  0
#> fx4    7 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.00     0.00  0
#> fy1    8 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.01     0.01  0
#> fy2    9 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.01     0.00  0
#> fy3   10 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.00     0.01  0
#> fy4   11 1e+05 0.01 1.00  0.01     0.00  0
#> fy5   12 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.02    -0.01  0
```

The section `Descriptive Statistics`, generated
by `psych::describe()`, shows basic
descriptive statistics for indicators.
As expected, they have means
close to zero and standard deviations
close to one, because the datasets were
generated using the standardized model.

This is the second one:


```
#> fy5   12 1e+05 0.00 1.00  0.02    -0.01  0
#> 
#> ===== Parameter Estimates Based on All 2 Samples Combined =====
#> 
#> Total Sample Size: 100000 
#> 
#> ==== Standardized Estimates ====
#> 
#> Variances and error variances omitted.
#> 
#> Latent Variables:
#>                     est.std
#>   fm =~                    
#>     fm1               0.578
#>     fm2               0.579
#>     fm3               0.578
#>   fx =~                    
#>     fx1               0.445
#>     fx2               0.443
#>     fx3               0.445
#>     fx4               0.445
#>   fy =~                    
#>     fy1               0.559
#>     fy2               0.560
#>     fy3               0.563
#>     fy4               0.565
#>     fy5               0.569
#> 
#> Regressions:
#>                     est.std
#>   fm ~                     
#>     fx                0.504
#>   fy ~                     
#>     fm                0.505
#>     fx                0.097
```

The section `Parameter Estimates Based on`
shows the parameter estimates when the
*population model* is fitted to *all the
datasets combined*. When the total
sample size is large, these estimates
should be close to the population values.

The results show that we have specified
the population model correctly. We
can proceed to specify the test and
estimate the power.

## Call `power4test()` to Do the Target Test {#med_power}

We can now do the simulation to estimate
power. A large number of datasets (e.g., 400)
of the target sample size are to be generated,
and then the target test will be conducted
in each of these datasets.

Suppose we would like to estimate the
power of using Monte Carlo confidence interval
to test the indirect effect from `fx` to
`fy` through `fm`, when sample size is 150.
This is the call:


``` r
out <- power4test(nrep = 400,
                  model = mod,
                  pop_es = mod_es,
                  number_of_indicators = k,
                  reliability = mod_rel,
                  n = 150,
                  R = 2000,
                  ci_type = "mc",
                  test_fun = test_indirect_effect,
                  test_args = list(x = "fx",
                                   m = "fm",
                                   y = "fy",
                                   mc_ci = TRUE),
                  iseed = 1234,
                  parallel = TRUE)
```

These are the new arguments used:

- `R`: The number of replications used
  to generate the Monte Carlo simulated
  estimates, 2000 in this example. In
  real studies, this number should be
  10000 or even 20000 for Monte Carlo
  confidence intervals. However, 2000
  is sufficient because the goal is to
  estimate power by generating many
  intervals, rather
  than to have one single stable interval.

- `ci_type`: The method used to
  generate estimates. Support both Monte
  Carlo (`"mc"`) and nonparametric
  bootstrapping (`"boot"`).^[They
  are implemented by `manymome::do_mc()`
  and `manymome::do_boot()`, respectively.]
  Although bootstrapping is usually used
  to test an indirect effect, it is very
  slow to do `R` bootstrapping in `nrep`
  datasets (the model will be fitted
  `R * nrep` times). Therefore, it is
  preferable to use Monte Carlo to do
  the initial estimation.

- `test_fun`: The function to be used
  to do the test for each replication.
  Any function following a specific
  requirement can be used, and
  `power4mome` comes with several
  built-in functions for some common tests.
  The function `test_indirect_effect()`
  is used to test an indirect effect
  in the model.

- `test_args`: A named list of arguments
  to be supplied to `test_fun`.
  For `test_indirect_effect()`, it is
  a named list specifying the predictor
  (`x`), the mediator(s) (`m`), and
  the outcome (`y`). A path with any
  number of mediators can be supported.
  Please refer to the help page of
  `test_indirect_effect()`.^[The test
  is implemented by `manymome::indirect()`.]

- `parallel`: If the test to be conducted
  is slow, which is the case for
  tests done by Monte Carlo or nonparametric
  bootstrapping confidence interval,
  it is advised to enable parallel
  processing by setting `parallel` to
  `TRUE`.^[The number of cores is determined
  automatically but can be set directly
  by the `ncores` argument.]

For `nrep = 400`, the 95% confidence
limits
for a power of .80 are about .04 below
and above .80. This should be precise
enough for determining whether a
sample size has sufficient power.

This is the default printout:


``` r
out
#> 
#> ====================== Model Information ======================
#> 
#> == Model on Factors/Variables ==
#> 
#> fm ~ fx
#> fy ~ fm + fx
#> 
#> == Model on Variables/Indicators ==
#> 
#> fm ~ fx
#> fy ~ fm + fx
#> 
#> fm =~ fm1 + fm2 + fm3
#> fx =~ fx1 + fx2 + fx3 + fx4
#> fy =~ fy1 + fy2 + fy3 + fy4 + fy5
#> ====== Population Values ======
#> 
#> Regressions:
#>                    Population
#>   fm ~                       
#>     fx                0.500  
#>   fy ~                       
#>     fm                0.500  
#>     fx                0.100  
#> 
#> Variances:
#>                    Population
#>    .fm                0.750  
#>    .fy                0.690  
#>     fx                1.000  
#> 
#> (Computing indirect effects for 2 paths ...)
#> 
#> == Population Conditional/Indirect Effect(s) ==
#> 
#> == Indirect Effect(s) ==
#> 
#>                  ind
#> fx -> fm -> fy 0.250
#> fx -> fy       0.100
#> 
#>  - The 'ind' column shows the indirect effect(s).
#>  
#> ==== Population Reliability ====
#> 
#>   fy  fm  fx
#>  0.7 0.6 0.5
#> 
#> == Population Standardized Loadings ==
#> 
#>     fm    fx    fy
#>  0.661 0.522 0.408
#> ======================= Data Information =======================
#> 
#> Number of Replications:  400 
#> Sample Sizes:  150 
#> 
#> Call print with 'data_long = TRUE' for further information.
#> 
#> ==================== Extra Element(s) Found ====================
#> 
#> - fit
#> - mc_out
#> 
#> === Element(s) of the First Dataset ===
#> 
#> ============ <fit> ============
#> 
#> lavaan 0.6-19 ended normally after 38 iterations
#> 
#>   Estimator                                         ML
#>   Optimization method                           NLMINB
#>   Number of model parameters                        27
#> 
#>   Number of observations                           150
#> 
#> Model Test User Model:
#>                                                       
#>   Test statistic                                69.181
#>   Degrees of freedom                                51
#>   P-value (Chi-square)                           0.046
#> 
#> =========== <mc_out> ===========
#> 
#> 
#> == A 'mc_out' class object ==
#> 
#> Number of Monte Carlo replications: 2000 
#> 
#> 
#> ====================== Test(s) Conducted ======================
#> 
#> - test_indirect: fx->fm->fy
#> 
#> Call print() and set 'test_long = TRUE' for a detailed report.
```

## Compute the Power

The power estimate is simply the proportion
of significant results, the *rejection*
*rate*, because the
null hypothesis is false. The rejection
rate can be retrieved by
`rejection_rates()`.


``` r
out_power <- rejection_rates(out)
out_power
#> [test]: test_indirect: fx->fm->fy 
#> [test_label]: Test 
#>     est   p.v reject r.cilo r.cihi
#> 1 0.336 1.000  0.492  0.444  0.541
#> Notes:
#> - p.v: The proportion of valid replications.
#> - est: The mean of the estimates in a test across replications.
#> - reject: The proportion of 'significant' replications, that is, the
#>   rejection rate. If the null hypothesis is true, this is the Type I
#>   error rate. If the null hypothesis is false, this is the power.
#> - r.cilo,r.cihi: The confidence interval of the rejection rate, based
#>   on normal approximation.
#> - Refer to the tests for the meanings of other columns.
```



In the example above, the estimated
power of the test of the indirect
effect, conducted by Monte Carlo
confidence interval, is
0.492, under the column
`reject`.

`p.v` is
the proportion of valid results
across replications. `1.000` means that
the test conducted normally in all
replications.

By default, the 95% confidence interval
of the rejection rate (power)
based on normal approximation is
also printed, under the column
`r.cilo` and `r.cihi`. In this example,
the 95% confidence interval is
[0.444; 0.541].

# Repeat a Simulation With A Different Sample Size {#new_n}

The function `power4test()` also supports
*redoing* an analysis using a new value
for the sample size (or population effect sizes
set to `pop_es`). Simply

- set the output of `power4test` as the first
argument, and

- set the *new value* for `n`.

For example, we can repeat the
simulation for the test of indirect
effect,
but for a smaller sample size of 200. We
simply call `power4test()` again,
set the previous output (`out` in
the example above) as the
first argument, and set `n` to a new
value (200 in this example):


``` r
out_new_n <- power4test(out,
                        n = 200)
out_new_n
```



This is the estimated power when
the sample size is 200.


``` r
out_new_n_reject <- rejection_rates(out_new_n)
out_new_n_reject
#> [test]: test_indirect: fx->fm->fy 
#> [test_label]: Test 
#>     est   p.v reject r.cilo r.cihi
#> 1 0.352 1.000  0.815  0.777  0.853
#> Notes:
#> - p.v: The proportion of valid replications.
#> - est: The mean of the estimates in a test across replications.
#> - reject: The proportion of 'significant' replications, that is, the
#>   rejection rate. If the null hypothesis is true, this is the Type I
#>   error rate. If the null hypothesis is false, this is the power.
#> - r.cilo,r.cihi: The confidence interval of the rejection rate, based
#>   on normal approximation.
#> - Refer to the tests for the meanings of other columns.
```



The estimated power is 0.815,
95% confidence interval
[0.777; 0.853],
when the sample size is
200.

This technique can be
repeated to find the required sample
size for a target power.

# Repeat a Simulation With Different Numbers of Indicators or Reliability

We can also redo an analysis using a new value
for reliability. For example, we may want to see
whether we can have a higher power if
we use more reliable scales.

As in the previous
example, we just call `power4test()` one the
original output, but set `reliability`
to a new vector.

Assume that we want to know the power
for the same scenario, but with all scales
having a population reliability of .80:


``` r
out_new_rel <- power4test(out,
                          reliability = c(fx = .80,
                                          fm = .80,
                                          fy = .80))
out_new_rel
```

This is the estimated power with
higher population reliability:


``` r
out_new_rel_reject <- rejection_rates(out_new_rel)
out_new_rel_reject
#> [test]: test_indirect: fx->fm->fy 
#> [test_label]: Test 
#>     est   p.v reject r.cilo r.cihi
#> 1 0.235 1.000  0.985  0.973  0.997
#> Notes:
#> - p.v: The proportion of valid replications.
#> - est: The mean of the estimates in a test across replications.
#> - reject: The proportion of 'significant' replications, that is, the
#>   rejection rate. If the null hypothesis is true, this is the Type I
#>   error rate. If the null hypothesis is false, this is the power.
#> - r.cilo,r.cihi: The confidence interval of the rejection rate, based
#>   on normal approximation.
#> - Refer to the tests for the meanings of other columns.
```



The estimated power is 0.985,
95% confidence interval
[0.973; 0.997], much higher than
the original scenario.

# Find the Sample Size With Desired Power

There are several more efficient ways to
find the sample size with the desired power.

## Using `n_region_from_power()`

The function `n_region_from_power()`
can be used to find the *region* of
sample sizes likely to have the desired
power. If the default settings are
to be used, then it can be called
directly on the output of `power4test()`:


``` r
out2_region <- n_region_from_power(out2,
                                   seed = 2345)
```

This is the recommended way for sample
size planning, when there is no predetermined
range of sample sizes.

See
[the templates](https://sfcheung.github.io/power4mome/articles/)
for examples on using `n_region_from_power()`
for common models.

## Using `power4test_by_n()`

First, the function
`power4test_by_n()` can be used To
estimate the power for a sequence of
sample sizes. For example, suppose
we do not know that the power is about
.80 with a sample size of 200. We
can estimate the power in the mediation
model above for these sample sizes:
175, 200, 225, 250.


``` r
out_several_ns <- power4test_by_n(out,
                                  n = c(175, 200, 225, 250),
                                  by_seed = 4567)
```

The first argument is the output
of `power4test()` for an arbitrary sample size.

The argument `n` is a numeric vector of
sample sizes to examine. For each `n`,
`nrep` datasets will be generated. Although
there is no limit on the number of sample sizes
to try, it is recommended to restrict the number
of sample sizes to 5 or less.

The argument `by_seed`, if set to an integer,
try to make the results reproducible.

The call will take some time to run because
it is equivalent to calling `power4test()`
once for each sample size.

The rejection rates for each sample size
can be retrieved by `rejection_rates()`
too:


``` r
rejection_rates(out_several_ns)
#> [test]: test_indirect: fx->fm->fy 
#> [test_label]: Test 
#>     n   est   p.v reject r.cilo r.cihi
#> 1 175 0.327 1.000  0.703  0.658  0.747
#> 2 200 0.329 1.000  0.830  0.793  0.867
#> 3 225 0.340 1.000  0.892  0.862  0.923
#> 4 250 0.330 1.000  0.902  0.873  0.932
#> Notes:
#> - n: The sample size in a trial.
#> - p.v: The proportion of valid replications.
#> - est: The mean of the estimates in a test across replications.
#> - reject: The proportion of 'significant' replications, that is, the
#>   rejection rate. If the null hypothesis is true, this is the Type I
#>   error rate. If the null hypothesis is false, this is the power.
#> - r.cilo,r.cihi: The confidence interval of the rejection rate, based
#>   on normal approximation.
#> - Refer to the tests for the meanings of other columns.
```

The results show that, to have a power of
about .800 to detect the mediation effect,
a sample size of about 200 is needed.

This approach is used when the range of
sample sizes has already been decided and
the levels of power are needed to determine
the final sample size.

Please refer to the
help page of `power4test_by_n()`
for other examples.

## Using `x_from_power()`

The function `x_from_power()`
can be used to systematically search
within an interval the sample size with
the target power. This takes longer to
run but, instead of manually trying
different sample size, this function
do the search automatically.

This approach can be used when the goal
is to find the probable minimum or
maximum sample size with the desired
level of power. The first approach,
using `n_region_from_power()`, simply
uses this approach twice to find the region
of sample sizes.

See
[this article](https://sfcheung.github.io/power4mome/articles/x_from_power_for_n.html)
for an illustration of how to use
`x_from_power()`.

# Other Scenarios

For other scenarios, such as moderation
and moderated mediation, please refer to
`vignette("power4mome")`.

# References
